The Formalist Critics, by Cleanth Brooks - 1513 Words

Cleanth Brooks writes in his essay â€Å"The Formalist Critics† from 1951 about criticism that formalist critics encounter and tries to show these arguments from his point of view and even indicates common ground with other literary critics. Cleanth Brooks argues that we lose the intrinsically obvious points of works of literature if we view the work through the different lenses of literary theory, however we are always viewing the literary work through a subjective lens, since the author and the critic cannot subjectively separate themselves from themselves and in making these points he contradicts himself. Cleanth Brooks starts his essay by listing â€Å"articles of faith I could subscribe to† (Brooks 19) and pointing out statements about†¦show more content†¦The author wants an ambiguous reading of his texts, and those are often the most challenging and enjoyable works. When Brooks writes that the next step is â€Å"evaluation of its object†, the subjective nature of literary criticism becomes apparent. Who criticizes seems to be the first step in a long subjective path and therefore one evaluation might differ from another evaluation completely. Experience in literary works seems to make those evaluations more valuable, however it might move the evaluations always into the same corner, for example, a Marxist critic may preferably tend to look at the classes and conflicts in the work. In his first sentence Brooks shows already the difficulty of providing an objective criticism of a literary work, which he calls an object, therefore a literary critic could evalua te any item. Brooks declares that form is important; â€Å"the primary concern of criticism is with the problem of unity – the kind of whole which the literary work forms or fails to form, and the relation of the various parts to each other in building up this whole† (Brooks 19). He echoes Aristotle’s Poetics who mentions that a â€Å"characteristics of a good plot† is â€Å"A whole is something that has a beginning, a middle, and an end† (Aristotle 26). Yet acclaimed works exist, which do not follow this rather obvious formula, and are still considered great literature, for example Woyzeck, which has no beginning andShow MoreRelatedCritical Examination of Brooks The Formalist Critics1015 Words   |  5 PagesBrooks starts his essay by listing â€Å"articles of faith I could subscribe to† (Brooks 19) and pointing out statements about literary criticism that might go with a formalist criticism. Yet, he questions that list its end, and seems to complain that his that his writings have been largely misunderstood. What his statements have to do with faith in connection with literature is up to the reader, since in one of his articles he specifically mentions, â€Å"literature is not a surrogate for religion† (BrooksRead MoreFormalism : The Rocking Horse Winner, And Annie Dillard s Essay, Living Like Weasels804 Words   |  4 PagesFormalism Gaims Essay Formalism is a style of how content is presented over what is being shown. In Cleanth Brooks, The Formalist Critics, Brooks emphasizes how you should criticize content by the form and structure of the work. Formalism is seen through English in the way literary works are structured. Formalism is reveled in the American government. Formalism is also shown in the structure of filmmaking. In almost any work of art or content, the concept of formalism is applied to everything. InRead MoreDonnes Poetry1769 Words   |  8 PagesWrite a close reading of John Donne’s â€Å"The Relic†. Think about what the poem is about (content), how it is written (form and structure), and why, to what effect (the relation between form and content). You may like to refer to Cleanth Brooks’ essay, â€Å"The Formalists,† for inspiration. This essay will look at the form, structure and content of â€Å"The Relic† in an attempt to offer an explanation as to what the poem is about. It will examine the metaphysical poets, and discuss the techniquesRead MoreAnalysis of The Novel Dubliners by James Joyce Essay1605 Words   |  7 PagesGallaher, who lives his ideal life: He felt acutely the contrast between his own life and his friends and it seemed to him unjust.(p.56). Chandler dreams of transcending Dublin and colonialism through latent poetic genius which would impress English critics(p.51). But he loses all hope in his dream, as a thinly-veiled altercation with Gallaher goads him into reading Byron, which his child confounds(p.59); this incites his heated plea of Stop!(p.59). Chandlers weeping is not caused by contrition atRead MoreFear Oneself : Freud s View On Psychoanalysis Essay1247 Words   |  5 Pagesand how they have progressed but I found that even though Freud’s theory may look into the minds of different characters in other literary works but it doesn’t necessarily resolve their conflicts they would face. Works Cited Cleanth, Brooks. â€Å"The Formalist Critics.† Literary Theory: An Anthology. By Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1998. 22-27. Print. Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Johanna M. Smith. Frankenstein: Complete, Authoritative Text with BiographicalRead More A Modest Proposal With A New Critical Approach Essay2055 Words   |  9 Pageswill get a lot more out of this proposal after I critically analyze it, and look forward to doing so. The critical approach I decided to research and apply to Jonathon Swifts, A Modest Proposal, is the New Critical approach, otherwise known as the Formalist approach. I began by searching for web pages that would give me a greater understanding of exactly what New Criticism entails. I found quiet a few all having similar explanations, some expanding slightly more on the topic. I discovered that it beganRead MoreLiterary Devices in Pride and Prejudice8198 Words   |  33 Pagescriticism concentrated on the author, and in Britain the text-based ctiticism of the two critics I. A. Richards and Williams Empson, his pupil, rejected that approach in order to concentrate on the literary texts themselves , and how readers were affected by those texts. This approach is often called pr actical Criticism, and it is matched by a similar critical movement in the USA, associated with Cleanth brooks, Rene wellek, Austin Warren and others, called new criticism. New Criticism was based almostRead MoreCleanth Brookss Essay Irony as a Principle of Structure9125 Words   |  37 Pagesof Hegel’s writings is utterly indispensable. Of course we will no longer expect to discover his achievement in his total system. The system as we have it belongs to the past. Even this statement concedes too much for, in my view, a really incisive critic would have to conclude that he had to deal, not with an authentically organic and coherent system, but with a number of overlapping systems. The contradictions in method between the Phenomenology and the system itself are but one instance of this

Characters Of Scout By Kill A Mockingbird

Courage has the capability of meaning different things to different people. It is usually divided into physical and mental courage and it has the potential to help people through tough situations. Throughout To Kill a Mockingbird, both physical and mental courage are shown from many of the main characters. This courage leads them to making important decisions that impact the outcome of the novel. Scout, Arthur Radley and Atticus all show an exceptional amount of bravery both internally and externally and these characteristics can show the reader who these characters truly are. Jean Louise Finch, also known as Scout has shown great amounts of courage throughout To Kill a Mockingbird. Scout has not only shown mental courage, as she is often†¦show more content†¦In this particular part of the story, Jem is using Scout’s gender to isolate her from a playing group. Scout uses a large amount of courage to stand up to him and continue to play with whoever she likes. However, she also had the courtesy of acting like a woman when she was required to. â€Å" I carefully picked up the tray and watched myself walk to Mrs. Merriweather. With my best company manners, I asked her if she would have some. After all, if Aunty could be a lady at a time like this, so could I† (318PAGE) This quote shows that even though Scout is a dedicated ‘tomboy’, she knows when to act like a lady. for the rest of her family. Although this is mental courage, Scout’s physical courage was also shown during the time of the trial. As her father was gua rding Tom Robinson’s cell, there were some men that threatened him if he did not move. Scout used her courage to walk out of her hiding place, despite her brother saying no, and stand up to the threatattacks. She talked to them about their children and targeted them emotionally so that they would realize what they were about to do. He’s in my grade,† I said, â€Å"and he does right well. He’s a good boy,† I added, â€Å"a real nice boy. We brought him home for dinner one time. Maybe he told you about me, I beat him up one time but he was real nice about it. Tell him hey for me, won’tShow MoreRelatedCharacter Analysis Of Scout In To Kill A Mockingbird1497 Words   |  6 PagesLee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout is one of the main characters and the narrator. During the time the book begins, she is a little 6 year-old girl who is mature for her age, and she continues to mature as the book progresses. Over the course of the novel, Scout develops an exceptional character which is constantly changing from the effects of different events and characters. In To Kill a Mockingbird, Lee uses the minor characters Boo Radley, Miss Maudie, and Aunt Alexandra to help develop Scout intoRead MoreEssay about To Kill a Mockingbird: Character Analysis of Jem and Scout580 Words   |  3 PagesTo Kill a Mockingbird: Character Analysis of Jem and Scout   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imagine just two young kids maturing within a matter of years. Imagine that same two kids, experiencing or understanding things that they aren’t meant to at a young age. Jem and Scout were just like that. They have experienced many things that they shouldn’t have at their age. Scout on the other hand, seems to be the one maturing the most. Throughout this whole essay, you will learn about Jem and Scout’s attributes, personality, andRead MoreScout and Her Character Development in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee657 Words   |  3 Pagescould not have heard it from the sidewalk. Someone inside the house was laughing.†(46) At the beginning of To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout is terrified of the Radley Place because she is not brave. She hears someone laughing while she is in the Radley Place after her brother Jem rolled her in a tire their. Through more experiences, Scout becomes caring and brave. At the beginning of the book Scout is not very caring or brave. She is not caring because she does not think about others feelings and how theyRead MoreThe Characters Of Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee Essay1464 Words   |  6 Pages There are plenty of important characters in the novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. The story chronicles life through the eyes of young children, but also shows first hand accounts of racist adults in the small town of Holcomb. This book is so unique because symbolism is avidly used. The main characters in To Kill a Mockingbird are symbolized as mockingbirds. There are many different situations where a character can be categorized as a mockingbird. A mockingbird can be a meek man accused of a crime, orRead MoreWhy Is Innocence Becomes Experience?1225 Words   |  5 PagesIn To Kill A Mockingbird there are several reason why innocence becomes experience. Phys.com stated â€Å"Between ages 5 and 11, the researchers found, children become aware that many people believe stereotypes, including stereotypes about academic ability. When children become aware of these types of bias about their own racial or ethnic group, it can affect how they respond to everyday situations.† This shows tha t Scout and Jem are in a time of their lives when racism will take effect. Not only becauseRead MoreKill A Mockingbird, By William Robinson And Jean Louise1572 Words   |  7 PagesTo Kill A Mockingbird Thesis: The phrase of killing a mockingbird represents the iniquity to vitiate something good and relatively unmarred, as mockingbirds do nothing but sing beautiful songs; they are innocent and harmless. This motif can also be interpreted as a symbol of imitation, or mocking - the mockingbird is known for its ersatz of other birds songs. This mockingbird motif, the foremosttheme, is exemplified by the actions and words of three characters in To Kill A Mockingbird -Read MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee873 Words   |  4 PagesIn the book, To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee illustrates that â€Å"it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird† throughout the novel by writing innocent characters that have been harmed by evil. Tom Robinson’s persecution is a symbol for the death of a mockingbird. The hunters shooting the bird would in this case be the Maycomb County folk. Lee sets the time in the story in the early 1950s, when the Great Depression was going on and there was poverty everywhere. The mindset of people back then was that blackRead MoreThe Setting Of Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1354 Words   |  6 PagesLiterary Analysis Name: Amy Lyons Title: To Kill a Mockingbird Author: Harper Lee Setting: The setting of To Kill a Mockingbird is a small town in south Alabama called Maycomb County in the early 1930s. Point of View: Harper Lee s first, only novel is written in first person due to the fact we see the whole story through Scout s perspective. Theme: One of the crucial themes that Lee based the novel on was racism, which was an extremely controversial topic at the time the book was publishedRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee913 Words   |  4 PagesIn Defense of To Kill A Mockingbird Rough Draft To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee has been banned and/or challenged over thirty times since its publication in 1960. Effectively preventing many students from enjoying the novel and benefitting from its message. To ignore racism is no different than denying it ever existed. To Kill a Mockingbird is appropriate for mature adolescence/students and should not be banned from schools. Despite its sexual related content, or profanity, a valuable lessonRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Of Kill A Mockingbird 1271 Words   |  6 PagesJourney Tasopulos Brannen ELA-8 19 April, 2015 Novel Analysis: To Kill A Mockingbird Selection: I selected this book because its the best book I have ever read. I read To Kill A Mockingbird last year and my class wrote an essay about this book, since I already know so much about this book I thought it would be a nice and quick read. I thought it would be a great enjoyment to refresh my memory of this epic book. I watched the movie soon after I read the whole book and it was very fun to pick out

Every Child is Special free essay sample

Darsheel Safary as Ishaan Awasthi, an eight-year old whose world is filled with wonders that no one else seems to appreciate. Aamir Khan as Ram Shankar Nikumbh, an art teacher who infects the students with joy and optimism. Tisca Chopra as Maya Awasthi, Ishaans mother, who gave up her career to raise her children. Vipin Sharma as Nandkishore Awasthi, Ishaans strict, hard, dominating father. Girija Oak as Jabeen, Nikumbhs co-worker Sachet Engineer as Yohaan Awasthi, Ishaans elder brother. Tanay Chheda as Rajan Damodran, Ishaans classmate at New Era High School. Bugs Bhargava and Shankar Sachdev as Sen Sir and Tiwari Sir, Two teachers at New Era High School, whose attitude towards Ishaan softens as his grades improve and he wins the art contest. M. K. Raina as the principal of New Era High School The character that I really like is Mr. Nikumbh. I admired him because he understands that children must be allowed the freedom to imagine and make their own decisions. We will write a custom essay sample on Every Child is Special or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The role of the teacher is limited to that of a guide only children cannot simply be spoon-fed some knowledge, or dry facts, and be expected to really shine in life! But above everything else, its his attitude towards the students in which he is most different from others: he lets the kids have their share of fun, laughter, music and dance. The children are overjoyed to have such a friendly teacher, who not only lets them sing and dance, but also gives them the freedom to express whatever they want, in whichever way they wish to! He infected the children with joy and optimism. PLOT/SUMMARY: The Indian movie â€Å"Every Child is special† (Taare Zameen Par) is a deeply moving story of an eight year old boy who has dyslexia which is a Developmental reading disorder where there is a problem in areas of the brain that help interpret language. The disorder is a specific information processing problem that does not interfere with one’s ability to think or to understand complex ideas. Most people with DRD have normal intelligence, and many have above-average intelligence. And in the case of the said movie, Ishaan (the protagonist) have dyslexia where he always gets low grades, finding himself always in trouble in school even defying his parents which in contrast to his intelligent brother. As the story progresses, a temporary art teacher was introduced in the person of Amir Khan playing Mr. Nikumbh. The story reveals the superb talent of Ishaan in painting. Mr. Nikumbh revealed himself who also suffered the same problem when he was a child. Later on, he helped Ishaan read, write and solve math equations. Mr. Nikumbh helped Ishaan overcome his fear and doubt. The story ended with Ishaan’s improvement in learning and regaining self confidence. REACTION: This movie makes its viewers realize that every child has their own pace of learning. Each one is a unique individual who has his/her own strengths and weaknesses. This strength may be in art, science, math, sport, etc. To be called intelligent is not limited with academic excellence, but it could also be in any form of specialty like art (and in the case of the movie, painting). The movie also emphasizes the importance of family’s support and understanding. Parents should encourage their children’s passion. â€Å"Every child is Special† is a great movie to watch because it tackles a lot of social issues as well as it awakens every emotion in you. It is definitely a life moving that will surely change your perspective in seeing every child for each and every one of them is unique in their own way. Every child is special.

Letter Of Recommendation Essays - Bachelor Of Engineering

Letter Of Recommendation Letter of Recommendation for Raj Rishi Chatterjee I should like to write a few words in support of Mr. Raj Rishi Chatterjee's application for graduate admission in your department. He is interested in pursuing his graduate work in the broad area of Computer Science. I have known Raj Rishi for two years. For two semesters, he was a student in my Computer Systems and Organization Class and laboratory course. In all the two semesters, he was one of my top students. I found him hard working and diligent to do the work assigned. More importantly, he is able to plan and organize his work efficiently. During the oral examinations, I found that he was perceptive and able to think logically. He also is enthusiastic and showed the initiative to understand and solve problems. Like most Indian students he has studied Electronics Engineering for 4 years and his fundamentals are quite sound now. Though he was admitted to Electronics and Communication discipline, he has pursued Computer Science and Engineering as an additional area of expertise. W hile being good in Electronics related subjects, he has shown immense interest and potential in the subjects of Computer Science. Out of his own personal interest, he has gone through the topics of Data Structures, Algorithms, Object Oriented Programming and Operating Systems, etc. He has also studied programming concepts and is proficient in Visual C++, Visual Basic, Oracle and Web Programming using Active X and Java. As a result of this, he was to develop the following innovative shareware software:- a) Multilingual Word Processor (supporting English, Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi, four major regional languages of India), b) Personal Reminder Program (an automated appointment diary) and c) 8085 Simulator. Raj Rishi has demonstrated his leadership and teamwork qualities being an active participant in the events organized by I.E.E.E. (The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and has been a key organizer for Debates, Symposiums and Programming Competitions in the institut e. Although I have not had sufficient opportunity to judge his writing skill, his oral communication skills in English are very good. From what I have seen of him I think he holds promise in the field of research. I have taught several hundreds of students and in my opinion he belongs to first ten students I strongly liked to suggest to go for advanced research for the benefit of Computer Science. In short I have no reservations in recommending his admission at the State University of New York at Buffalo. Yours faithfully, mr

Project Charter free essay sample

This Charter formally authorizes a project to develop and implement a software system that will enable them to automate their current systems such as the patient record system, the patient and insurance billing, and the patient scheduling system. Commencement of project activities will begin upon approval of the project plan and the resources to execute it by Dr Timothy Jones. Included in the project plan are to be a scope statement; schedule; cost estimate; budget; and provisions for scope, resource, schedule, communications, quality, risk, procurement, and stakeholder management as well as project control. The purpose of the New Century Medical Software Project is to automate their current patient systems. This project meets New Century Medical for computerizing their filing system for their patient’s records. This will enable them to be organized and have easy access to their automated patient’s records. The projects deliverables will include digital files for every patient, organized insurance information for each patient and their appointment system will be easier to organize. We will write a custom essay sample on Project Charter or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Project Manager, B H Software Co.  is hereby authorized to interface with management as required, negotiate for resources, delegate responsibilities within the framework of the project, and to communicate with all contractors and management, as required, to ensure successful and timely completion of the project. The Project Manager is responsible for developing the project plan, monitoring the schedule, cost, and scope of the project during implementation, and maintaining control over the project by measuring performance and taking corrective action. A completed project plan will be developed and submitted to the Project Sponsor for approval by May 25, 2012. Upon approval of the project plan resources will be assigned to the project and work will commence within 10 days. Once the project commences, work on the project will be performed according to the schedule provided in the approved project plan. The Project Manager will obtain approval from the Project Sponsor for any schedule changes which impact the project completion milestone. The budget for the New Century Medical Software Project is $900,000. It is to be funded through Dr. Jones. Project Charter free essay sample Involve market and economics(tall purchases are made in us dollars) research 2. To be open with the employees and other interested stakeholders and try the first samples of the product on professionals. COMMUNICATIONS STRATEGY 1. To create value for professionals to use and brand loyalty towards ACM composites 2. To provide link with the resource suppliers to be able to correspond to the demand from the hockey companies END PRODUCTS:  -gives a new segment development- pro player part of the market composite material hockey sticks -provides a defense towards losing hockey stick from composite material from China -provides and economic analysis of such an investment PROJECT SCOPE The project scope was the delivery of a 100% custom stick , conforming to the project specifications, within 1 week of the business order(competitive advantage) PARAMETERS PROJECT OBJECTIVES SCHEDULE: Project to be completed for an year The firm has allocated $500,000 for this project. The biggest part of the costs for this project will be the FOH(factory over head-supervision,maintenance,prod maintenance) KNOWN CONSTRAINTS: RESOURCES: To be determined OTHER: The company desires to penetrate the pro player hockey segment but we are not sure that the players will want to change from Chinese hockey sticks to Canadian ones. We will write a custom essay sample on Project Charter or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page . RISK ASSESSMENT: (High, Medium, Low) Probability Impact External Risk TBD TBD Political Risk: Political pressures to protect current plants L L Market Risk: Risk losing reputation in hockey stick market if the project fails M H Internal Risk ? ? Schedule Risk: H H Budget Risk: H M Technical Risk: TBD L L Other Risk: Professional buyers preferring cheaper alternative L M PROJECT ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACTS ORGANIZATIONS IMPACTED BY THE PROJECT INTERNAL: CONTACT TELEPHONE Engineering, Financial, Marketing EXTERNAL: CONTACT TELEPHONE Less price sensitive professionals REPORTING RELATIONSHIPS:   President and the Senior Management Committee will meet monday morning to discuss project . 2. Big chalk board with chart will be used during the discussion and brainstorming on it for ideas. COMPLETION CRITERIA 1. Report of feasibility and recommendations has been delivered and approved by corporate management. PROJECT PLANNING PARAMETERS DATE PLANNING COMPLETION DUE: ESTIMATED PLANNING BUDGET: $500,000 SIGN OFF SUBMITTED FOR PLANNING SIGNATURE DATE PROJECT MANAGER FUNCTIONAL MANAGER SPONSOR

Valuation (Compulsary Purchase Order) Example

Valuation (Compulsary Purchase Order) Example Valuation (Compulsary Purchase Order) – Coursework Example Valuation College Valuation (compulsory Purchase Order) Claim is a request for a benefit in which a claimant believes is entitled to but no agreement has been reached yet. This is where the claimant has suffered or is suffering some lose in which he/she believes that there should be some compensation by the one causing the lose. Before any compensation to take place there should some evaluation conducted so that the loss is quantified in monetary terms. In this case Roy Scroggins home and source of income are to forcefully taken by the government so as to construction of the Dullsville Dual Carriage as the road through Dullsville Crescent where his property is. This will be a great loss to him and his family as they built a home there to cut on rent expenses and also established a shop that has been a source of income. Heads of claim refers to particular category of circumstances under which claims can be compensated .In Roy’s case value of land in which the property is built should be considered because had he sold the property the land price would have been inclusive. In most cases land appreciates in value or at least remains the same and thus that should be paid for. Disturbance fees refer to costs and losses incurred as a result of being disturbed from the property like in his case. There should also be home-loss payment and there should also be re-housing by the relevant authorities. Roy should seek professional advise because once a notice to treat has been served one should submit claim within 21 days and more so because this formed part of his retirement plan. Reference List Christudason, A, 2009. Property rights: Achieving a fine balance in collective sales ofstrata developments in Singapore. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment, 1(1), 26-41.

New Forms of Employment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

New Forms of Employment - Essay Example These phrases have in common their definition of employment relations that differ from typical work arrangements in which it was normally implied that work was implemented full-time, would last for an indefinite period, and was fulfilled at the employer's office strictly according to the employer's instruction. Typical work arrangements were the model in a lot of industrial states for much of the twentieth century and were the foundation of the structure within which employment law, bargaining, and security systems functioned. Reforms beginning at the end of twentieth century created the situation that led countries, companies, and employees to look for more flexibility in employment. As a result, the usual employment relationship started changing (Galbraith, 2004, p. 42; Houseman & Osawa, 1995, p. 10). Worldwide economic reforms increased competition and indecision among companies and made them to push for larger earnings and to be more adaptable in setting relations with their workers and responding to customers. Slow-moving economic development resulted in high unemployment rate that made it obvious, particularly in Europe, that economies were unable to create a sufficient amount of jobs to offer full-time salary employment for all employees (Keeley, 2001, p. 214). The adoption of atypical employment was facilitated by technical developments in communication and information systems that made it simple for companies to specialize their manufacture, bring temporary workers together quickly for assignment s, and count more on outside contractors. Employment laws created to protect permanent workers also fueled the development in atypical work by making employers pass up the mandates and expenses connected with these laws (Brown et al. 2000, p. 13). So too did demographic reforms in the composition of the work force, such more married women and old people working, who frequently preferred the flexibility obtainable through atypical employment arrangements (Gellerman, 1990, p. 122). Therefore, if to evaluate temporary employees and so-called "multifunctional full-time workers" (those who do most part of the work on constant basis), the former is obviously more beneficial and profitable. Atypical work relations are not new. Work arrangements that did not correspond the model of full-time work always existed, and history is full of instances of peripheral work forces and flexible labor markets where the work is unbalanced and temporary (Gratton et al., 1999, p. 74). For example, in the contracting system of the United States in the 19th century, management provided equipment and space in the plant, supplied raw material and monetary resources, and set for the sale of the product while contractors were accountable for manufacture and hired the employers, paid them and controlled them (Jackson & Schuler 1995, p. 237).